Bar and Bat Mitzvahs

Rites of passage are a common element of various populations. These rites indicate a change in the lives of those involved. This change usually includes more responsibilities of one kind or another and the rite takes the participant into that next phase of life. One such rite for those of the Jewish faith is the passage into adulthood in a religious, and to an extent, a social sense. The b’nai mitzvah, bar mitzvah for boys and bat mitzvah for girls, are the ceremonies established for this purpose.The ceremony takes place when a boy turns thirteen, or a girl twelve or thirteen, and afterwards, the child is then considered an adult within the religion, expected to take on the responsibilities thereof so that they may help to teach others the ways of the Jewish faith. These responsibilities include praying, observance of the Sabbath, fasting when it is required, and other such things.While such things were considered mainly the responsibilities of those who were becoming adult ma les, it has evolved over the centuries to include females to one extent or the other as well, although Orthodox churches still tend to exclude women from performing many of the tasks that have traditionally been the roles of the male. The word â€Å"mitzvah† is defined as a commandment, while â€Å"bar† and â€Å"bat,† respectively, mean son and daughter.These terms indicate that those going through the ritual are now at a point where they can fulfill the commandments, becoming responsible members of the faith and be welcomed into the adult population. From that point on, the child is considered an adult â€Å"for purposes of participating in synagogue ritual† (Fox and Zimbler 18-19). According to Cohen and Weinrott, â€Å"The goal of the bar and bat mitzvah is to enter the larger community, while at the same time recognizing one’s own unique individual spiritual and social circumstances† (5). Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 2 of 9The first indica tion of the practice of the bar mitzvah seems to be in the Talmud several centuries ago during the Second Temple, when it is recorded that the sages would â€Å"bless a child who had reached the age of thirteen and who had fasted on Yom Kippur† (Lewit and Epstein 5). At that time there was no ceremony involved, only the declaring of the boy as bar mitzvah on his thirteenth birthday. He was considered an adult then, expected to follow the laws and take responsibility for himself instead of being considered the responsibility of his father.It was in the thirteenth or fourteenth century that this transition became formalized in such a way that resembles the ritual practiced today. The ceremony then led into a meal to celebrate the boy’s transition, and by 1595, this feast became â€Å"so sumptuous that a communal tax was placed on the celebration to stop such excesses† (Cohen and Weinrott 11). The bat mitzvah was not such an illustrious occasion as early as the bar mitzvah. The Talmud records that, around the second or third century, girls came of age at twelve to fulfill the commandments.Women were not obligated like men to engage in most religious exercises, their responsibilities instead revolving around home and family. While this age was considered important, it was not until the seventeenth century that it was considered important to celebrate the occasion. France and Italy celebrated with a ceremony in the middle of the nineteenth century at the latest, but it was not until 1922 that girls were accorded the same ceremony as boys with their bat mitzvah, when Mordecai Kaplan of the Society for the Advancement of Judaism, who founded Reconstructive Judaism, held the ceremony for his daughter.In some congregations, a girl becomes bat mitzvah at twelve, while in others the ceremony is performed at thirteen, Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 3 of 9 like it is for boys. Different congregations of Judaism treat the coming of age of boys and girls in d ifferent ways. While some give equal credence to the two genders during this time in belief that both should be on equal footing, there are others who believe that the religious obligations of boys and girls are different and therefore they should follow different rules.This leads to even more differences in the observance of this special time for girls than it does before, as some congregations have the identical ceremony for both genders while others give the girls less religious responsibility during the occasion. It is not that they consider the duties of a female to be less important, only separate and distinct from those expected from males. The celebration of these ceremonies took on different aspects in different countries starting late in the Middle Ages.The differences included such things as on which days the ceremony took place and how much of the service was conducted by the boy himself. The Marranos in Spain and Portugal were forced to practice their religion in secret , and the day of the bat mitzvah was when a boy was introduced to the religion. This secrecy helped to preserve the religion for more than 300 years in those countries. The traditional day for the bar or bat mitzvah to take place is on Saturday, which is known as Shabbat, or Sabbath.Bat mitzvahs are often held on Fridays, different congregations either giving the choice as to whether to hold it on Shabbat or requiring that it be done on Friday night. It is also possible for either ceremony to be held on Mondays or Thursdays, which were days in the days of the Temple when the Torah was read. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 4 of 9 While some may choose to enhance the event by combining it to some extent with existing Jewish holidays, there are certain days which are usually avoided.The traditions of these holidays can help to make the day even more special and memorable. However, there are certain days that involve the remembrance of tragic times for the Jewish people, and these days, such as Yom Ha-Shoah, when the lives of those lost in the Holocaust are remembered, are considered inappropriate for the occasion due to the solemnity and focus on those who have been lost. Many children who are approaching their time of bar or bat mitzvah take part in a course of study to help prepare them for the occasion.Children are often taught in groups, and during this time they learn the blessings which are said at the ceremony as well as the basic skills that are needed for the synagogue, which include â€Å"the use of the tallit, tefillin; the blowing of a shofar; how to lift and dress the Torah, and other Jewish practices† (Lewit and Epstein 35). In addition to this training of the children in groups comes more individualized training with the cantor. Each child will usually spend four to six months training in this way.Other tutors may be utilized as well, giving the children a well-rounded and intensive study of what is to come and what is expected of them. Study aids such as the Tikkun are also helpful for this purpose. The Tikkun is a book that is used to help practice reading the Torah, giving help not only with pronunciation, but also with melody, which is a large part of the ceremonies in many congregations. The duties of the bar or bat mitzvah vary from congregation to congregation. At the simplest, it is simply the responsibility of the newly proclaimed adult to recite a blessing at the Torah.This is the most sacred of books in the Jewish faith, and is Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 5 of 9 handwritten on a scroll made of parchment. It is considered an honor to recite a blessing at the Torah, and is the most important part of the bar or bat mitzvah. Depending upon the congregation, he or she will read part or all of the passage, and then the Torah is taken around the synagogue before being returned to its place in the ark which is either at the front or the center of every synagogue.Another common duty of the bar or bat mitzvah is to read the H aftarah, which is a reading from the Prophets. It, as the Torah, has its own melodies that are usually followed and which take much practice to get right. In some Reform congregations it and the Torah are merely recited. Some congregations can require even more responsibility from the bar or bat mitzvah. He or she can be expected not just to recite the entire Torah portion of the service, but also to lead some of the service or to take over with certain prayers.A speech can also be required, and the father usually recites a blessing as well, officially relinquishing responsibility for the child who has now become an adult. Some congregations also require the child to spend time writing what is known as a dvar Torah for the ceremony. This is a commentary on a portion or portions of the Torah that the child is expected to study and interpret in his or her own way. He or she usually relates it somehow to his or her life and the significance of the Jewish faith to the individual writing it. The length of the document does not matter so long as it expresses something meaningful.In addition to the duties expected from the bar or bat mitzvah, others can play a significant role in the ceremony. The number of these can vary in different congregations, but it is considered an honor to the participants who perform those duties. Those who Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 6 of 9 take part in this are usually close to the child, and it is a duty that those asked to participate take very seriously. However, Orthodox churches tend to disallow the participation of women in most, if not all, of these. The most important role for one of these honorees is that of the aliyah.This is when one is allowed to go to the pulpit and both before and after one section is read from the Torah, to recite a blessing. The number of people who can be an aliyah can be as high as eight, with the last one being that of the child, who is to the final blessing, which is known as the Maftir. This demonstrate s the first real responsibility that a child is accorded in the congregation to illustrate his or her adult status. Other honors can include family members who are allowed to read a section of the Torah as well as tasks that can be taken on in some cases by younger children.There are also tasks that can be taken on by those who are not allowed to participate in the Torah service. They can help to hand things out, serve as ushers, or even decorate the synagogue for the ceremony and bake refreshments. There is also a tradition for many of those in the congregation to throw nuts and candies at the newly proclaimed adult after the ceremony, and passing out such things is a job often taken on by younger family members. After the service, many Jewish families throw a celebration.This has been a big change from earlier days, when there was no pomp but simply a declaration of the child becoming an adult. But these celebrations have become an important part of some congregations, particularl y those of American Jews. Many more traditional Jews frown upon the seeming need of many families to try and outdo each other in the extravagance of this celebration. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 7 of 9 One of the traditions that is often followed at Jewish celebrations, including the b’nai mitzvah, is called the Kiddush.This is a prayer over wine that is defined as sanctification. Red wine is the most commonly used for this purpose and it is decided by the family who will chant the Kiddush. This can be one or more people, depending on their preference. The only one who is required to drink from the goblet of wine is the chanter of the blessing, but some prefer to pass it around so that all may have a taste, or with larger groups, cups may be provided for all. Another blessing that is given is the Motzi, which is the blessing over bread.Bread is a very important part of the Jewish meal, and a braided bread known as challah is used for such a purpose as important ceremonies. They are symbolic, and â€Å"represent not just the staff of life, but unity and peace as well† (Cohen and Weinrott 151). The bread is blessed after the wine, giving thanks for the feast that is to be shared. During the Kiddush, the challah is covered with a cloth, some traditions stating that this is to protect the bread from being embarrassed because the wine is blessed first.After the blessing of the bread, there is no need for blessings to be said over any of the following courses. It is usually tradition for a grandparent, or eldest member of the family, to say the blessing over the bread as well as cut it after the blessing. It may then be sliced and then passed around to all present, although some prefer to tear the bread with hands instead of cutting it with a knife. It is then usually salted before being eaten, and then the rest of the meal follows. A more recent tradition among the American Jews is that of the candle lighting ceremony.Thirteen or fourteen people are com monly chosen to light candles that are often placed on a cake, and sometimes make a blessing over the candles for the child. A Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 8 of 9 cake is not always used, however, with some people preferring a candelabra or other setting. When the candles are lit is also optional, some preferring it before the meal while others wait until after. Music is often used to announce the tradition, and special words are often said by those lighting them and occasionally by the child as well.During the celebration is also a time when many choose to make toasts to the child and his or her future and to wish that child well. The parents might choose to give speeches, and usually anyone is invited to say something if they wish, although brevity is often appreciated. The ceremony of Havdalah, which means separation, is often incorporated into Saturday night celebrations, and regarding bar and bat mitzvahs, â€Å"it is a special reminder of the bittersweet separation of youth and adulthood† (Cohen and Weinrott 159).After the celebratory meal, it is a tradition to say the Birkat Ha-Mazon, which means â€Å"grace after the meal. † Four prayers make this up, and then there are also psalms and blessing said as well. There are many choices as to who can lead this service, from the rabbi to the bar or bat mitzvah. However, there are also those who prefer less formal graces, and they might even include a poem or other prayers. The conclusion of this grace is a prayer for peace. Music has always been a large part of the Jewish culture; therefore it is often included as an important part of the celebration.The offerings of this can range anywhere from the simple to the more elaborate, depending upon the tastes of those involved. It is preferable to involve the guests with this, and that can be done in a variety of ways, from singing to dancing, which usually includes the hora. Bar and Bat Mitzvahs Page 9 of 9 The hora is a traditional dance used during J ewish celebrations. It was developed early in the twentieth century in Israel, and is a group dance, where the dancers are linked to each other in a circle, arms linked and hands on the shoulders of those next to them.This represents the closeness of the community and the equality of value of all of the people involved†¦ After the hora often comes the chair dance, in which the child sits in a chair and then that chair is lifted above their shoulders by those present. They are then danced that way, and often parents and other family members are allowed to share in the feelings of exultation by having their own turn in the chair. This dance emphasizes not only the individual who is put in the spotlight, but the community around that person who supports the chair and the individual during that time.The sense of community is very important to those of the Jewish faith, and this dance is a demonstration of this. Ceremony is a very crucial part of Judaism. This can be seen in many of their holidays and ceremonies, and the importance of the b’nai mitzvah can be considered to be the fact that it is this that pulls yet another into the community of Jewish adults. The new adult is allowed then to participate in ways that only adults can, and this strengthens the religion as a whole, passing the traditions and beliefs on to another generation so that it may again be passed on to that person’s children.Perhaps the fact that the Jewish people have been through much pain and difficulty throughout their history has helped to make these ceremonies even more important than they once were, transitioning them from a simple announcement of adulthood and breaking off of responsibility by the father to the elaborate celebrations that many have today. Bibliography Cohen, Jayne and Lori Weinrott. 2004. The Ultimate Bar/Bat Mitzvah Celebration Book. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers. Fox, Karen L. and Phylliz Zimbler Miller.1992. Seasons for Celebratoin: A Contem porary Guide to the Joys, Practices, and Traditions of the Jewish Holidays. New York: The Putnam Publishing Group. Himelstein, Dr. Shmuel. 1990. The Jewish Prayer: Questions and Answers on Jewish Faith and Cuture. New York: Facts on File, Inc. Lewit, Jane and Ellen Epstein. 1996. The Bar/Bat Mitzvah Planbook. Lanham, MD: Scarborough House. Oppenheimer, Mark. 2005. Thirteen and a Day: The Bar and Bat Mitzvah Across America. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay

Thesis: Technology, such as texting, while driving is unsafe and can be a hazard to teen drivers and others. In the Knox News opinion column, there was an article found titled â€Å"Twits texting, tweeting behind the wheel.† The author of this article, Ina Hughs, is arguing that texting, MP3 players, and other electronic devices are unsafe to use when behind the wheel. She is writing to inform teenagers and other drivers about the dangers of driving while texting. Even though Hughes makes some excellent points in her column, she may not be the most qualified person to be writing about the dangers of texting and how tempting it may be. Hughes indeed has a cell phone, but she had the texting enabled on her phone so she does not text with it. The only information that she gets that makes her qualified to write this article would be the fact that her eleven-year-old grandson just got a cell phone. Even with this information, it still does not qualify her since her grandson cannot drive. She did though get facts from reliable magazines and researchers to back her up. Hughs’ format of her article shows a lot about whom she is and her qualifications. Just about every paragraph she either has some sort of statistical evidence or an example of why texting and driving is bad. She does not have any real connection to the audience she is trying to address. The author uses logos a lot in this text to support her many claims as to driving while texting. One thing she mentions is, â€Å"according to the New York Times, one in five drivers admits to texting while driving on a somewhat regular basis, and they say they won’t stop because they are ‘literally addicted.’† This claim reinforces her purpose of texting while driving by giving statistical evidence of why it is so dangerous. So many people do it. â€Å"According to research, every time you get a text, tweet, instant message, or call, ‘your brain squirts out a little dopamine- the pleasure chemical- and left to our own devices, we spin out of control.

The Influence of OBAOR Strategy in the GCC Countries Thesis Proposal

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Course Project Task 4-5 - Essay Example The corporate level strategy has a good chance of succeeding because Nissan’s management is not new to Thailand. Nissan already enjoys an established presence in Thailand. In order to turn its weaknesses into strengths, Nissan must steer its expansion program carefully so that justification for the eco-car is clear, and the investment pays off. Further, since Nissan is already in the process of corporate restructuring under the Recovery Plan, it can use this to its advantage by molding the new structure so that it specifically supports the expansion program in Thailand. Also, as Thailand has cheaper labor than Japan, the expansion program in Thailand will further help Nissan in slashing labor costs. This would make it a leaner company that can focus on the eco-car and lead the future more profitably. There is thus a greater chance for profitability in Thailand than in Japan with the strong yen. As Nissan already has a presence in Thailand, it has established access to suppliers and dealers. This enables Nissan to use its existing business relationships as a springboard for carrying out the expansion programs. Development of the eco-car specifically is also of special interest to Thailand’s government and to environmental groups. Therefore, gains can definitely be made from synergy and the environment of Thailand is supportive. Nissan’s corporate strategy could identify the new eco-car more closely with Thailand to consolidate the relationship and open up new opportunities for moving beyond Japan and its alliance with Renault. The change would make business sense for Nissan to further its Recovery Plan on one hand and set the stage for the future with its new eco-car on the other. Change is necessary if Nissan wants to thwart its troubles of the past and invent a new eco image for itself in promotion of its Green Program. As for turning threats

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Determining the Impact of Information Systems Research Proposal

Determining the Impact of Information Systems - Research Proposal Example It is pertinent to define and explain a little about political organizations with a few examples of such bodies in the United States and Australia. There are diverse definitions or perceptions of political organizations and a few of them are worth mentioning. According to Leacock & Lee (1982) political organizations are comprised of â€Å"those portions of social organization that specifically relate to the individuals or groups that management the affairs of public policy or seek to control the appointment or action of those individuals or groups†. A legal perception of such bodies as perceived by the North Dakota Supreme Court defines political organization as â€Å"a political party or other group, a principal purpose of which is to further the election or appointment of candidates for legislative or executive office or to support or oppose the continuation, amendment, repeal, enactment, initiative, or referendum of any constitutional, statutory, or regulatory provisionâ⠂¬  (N.D. Code Jud. Conduct Terminology, 2006). A much narrower and even stronger definition is given by Radcliff-Brown, in the sense that they emphasize the words coercive authority and physical force to be a factor in politics. The common thread that runs through all the definitions is the element of control that a political organization can have over the society and individuals in the society. But only the legal definition mentions the term election and not the other two. This indicates that election is not mandatory for an organization to be considered political. So, a monarchy, where continuity is by birth rather than by mandate can also be considered to be political if has the power to control the society. It can also be applicable in the case of a dictatorship. Generally speaking, any group that fields candidates to be elected to positions of power in a government can be considered to

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Nucor Corporation - Essay Example To begin with, there is competition for the inputs that are required in the production of steel. The industry core input is from recycling of scrap metal. The many firms in the industry thus compete for these metals used in production. There is also competition for market share between the players. Market share determines the level and volume of sales that a firm makes and therefore influence e the profits to a firm (Porter, 1998). The foreign suppliers further tighten competition for market share in the steel industry. Firms in this industry as well are faced by the threat of entry by new firms as this may influence negatively on the performance of the already existing firms. Michael Porter five forces model can be applied to explain the competitive forces in this market. According to porter, the five factors that influence the performance of firms are the threat of entry of new firms, threat of substitute products, bargaining power of suppliers, bargaining power of customers, and t he rivalry among firms (Porter, 1998). These five forces will affect operations and determine the policies to be adopted by firms to ensure that the competitive edge against competitors is attained. In this market for instance, there is high bargaining power of customers. ... The fight for market share is a zero sum game where if one firm increases its market share then the others will lose their share. In the US industry, there is threat of entry of very new firms or formation of partnership, alliances, or mergers that will make the competition stiffer. Nucor Corporation has therefore increased its acquisition of new firms and reduced the bureaucracy to ensure flexibility and better performance. The industry is thus highly competitive. The bargaining power of suppliers also exists in the industry because of the many firms in the industry. In this industry, firms have to look for scrap metals that are molted and used in producing steel products. The companies must therefore offer good prices for input for them to have continued supply of raw materials and reliable suppliers. The third force is the threat of substitute products. Substitute products have similar uses and satisfy the same need, therefore becoming important for competition. Industries that ar e characterized by the existence of closer substitutes are highly competitive and must ensure quality production and good pricing. Continuous restructuring and strategies are also important for the success of the firms. Presence of substitute products in the steel industry, together with the imports from china, turkey and other foreign countries have made competition stiff in this industry (Thompson, 2010). The four forces together with the rivalry among firms are the component of the five forces model. The rivalry among firms is determined by the ease of exit, branding, product identity, product difference and switching cost. The low cost of switching and the ease of exit makes the steel industry in US

Should mortgage lenders be nationalised Essay Example for Free

Should mortgage lenders be nationalised Essay Following recent disturbances in the world economy some governments came to a conclusion that it is in their duty to intervene and solve the growing problem. In this case the problem of mortgage lenders. As with every action from government, it is important to assess whether there truly is a market failure or not. To begin with, a closer look at how this situation arose would be essential. Over recent years, the housing market not only in UK but around the world as well had been enjoying a period of prosperity. House prices were ridiculously high, though no one seemed to be bothered by that. Residential Mortgage Backed Securities (RMBS) played a key role in that, as this security type let a vast number of homebuyers to take loans. Investors thought that might just be a perfect opportunity to make some profit, so they also joined this house of madness by lending money to mortgagors through the banking system. However, nothing lasts forever. Investors realised that there is a risk of their money not being returned either on condition that banks and/or lenders fail, therefore they immediately left the market causing dry up of mortgage finances. So, there it is. This is where government ought to, in mortgage lenders opinion, step in, pump money and let the vicious cycle continue. Indeed, there is a market failure. A failure that only government can solve. Should it though? Isnt the true idea standing behind the capitalism to reward the hard-working, the smart and punish the lazy, the reckless? Why should the latter ones be protected? Why should tax payers money be spent in such a wasteful way? Nationalising UKs Bradford Bingley alone has already cost à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½150bn. In fact, only a small number of banks is to be blamed for this state of affairs to have taken place. Their irresponsible high stake risk taking actions led to a disaster that, now, they want all of us to bear the cost of. How unreasonable that must sound to a person who doesnt even have a mortgage? Weve had ten years of allowing banks to do what they wish really, to give them absolute freedom to lend. Alex Brummer, City editor, Mail on Sunday However, with nationalising it would be assured that Bank of Englands base rate is reinforced and has a real life implications, as it has been recently revealed that some mortgage providers do not cut their interest rates in line with the one set up by BoE. Moreover, it has been stated by government authorities and banks representatives on numerous occasions that improving access to capital is crucial to get the economy working again. That might actually be the case with a reduced borrower exploitation. Nationalised industries are supposed to be in the best interest of society, therefore hopefully there will no longer be banks trying to unfairly steal peoples possessions by taking a use of their lack of knowledge, charging enormous rates, making it harder for those who already find it difficult to keep up with repayments. Government would be able to offer competitive deals for everyone, and with market forces coming in, other lenders would have to follow the trend as well. It is the period of nationalising that needs to be taken into consideration, too. United Kingdom Chancellor of the Exchequer, Alistair Darling, emphasised that this process in regards of Northern Rock is only on a temporary basis, yet still it would be more realistic to count in years rather than months instead. That is how long it is expected for NR to repay the loan from taxpayers. That situation is extremely rare these days, so an accurate estimation of when the government will loosen its grip on the bank is hard to predict. Worth mentioning is the fact that it was only after 16 years of Rolls-Royce emergent nationalisation in 1971, that all its shares were sold to private owner. What would happen if the mortgage defaults continued to rise though? What if the plan would fail? And more money would be needed in attempts to solve the problem? Taxpayers would be left with a very large bill to pay for financial bailout. And this leaves us with the question how would the government fund further bailouts? Increase taxation? Cannot, this would cause a slowdown of an economy. Income tax lower income, lower consumption. Indirect taxes higher taxes, lower consumption. Doesnt sound good. Borrowing? Cannot. The so-called Golden Rule of fiscal policy is that the government should not borrow in order to finance current spending, and that any borrowing the government does undertake is for investment. I wouldnt consider rescuing awfully managed mortgage lending banks as a form of investment. I have no doubt that Mrs Thatcher would more than happily get rid of collapsing institutions. In her opinion, what doesnt work, shouldnt be allowed to work at all. Bailing banks out is a wrong idea in terms of externalities, moral hazard in particular. If they [banks] would know that there is the Government standing behind, fully prepared to save them in case of failure, they would feel more secure about themselves, with a higher willingness to take risk. They wouldnt bear all the consequences. Northern Rock and Bradford Bingley did not. Where is the capitalistic ideology of laissez-faire? Just leave it alone. Events should take their own courses, whereas government generally ought not to intervene in the marketplace. Looking at the situation in a more positive light though, financial conditions will improve in few years time, and by then the Government will be able to sell banks for much more attractive prices (e.g. Virgin trying to buy Northern Rock, but the offer was too low in Governments opinion) in order to compensate and benefit taxpayers. Still, I am not really convinced with the view of governments nationalising mortgage lenders. As a free market economy supporter, I strongly believe that the market should be free of any governments intervention nor regulation, besides the minimum function of maintaining the legal system and protecting property rights. To finalise, I would like to quote a man, whose words cannot summarise my essay better, The nationalisation of Northern Rock is a disaster for the taxpayer, a disaster for this government and a disaster for our country.

Earls Top 5 Filipino Traits Essay Example for Free

Earls Top 5 Filipino Traits Essay 1. Adept Filipinos are very flexible at surging any difficulty and hardship 2. Craftsmanship Filipinos are very crafty 3. Obsessive Filipinos wish to improve their lives and those around them and are willing to go through great hardships and efforts, but dont always know when to stop or how to balance it all. 4. Mimicry Filipinos tend to copy or gain that which others have. In this respect, thats why you see groups of Filipinos in foreign countries that are so similar (like in LA every Filipino seems to have a piano at home that no one buys, or in Japan every Filipino on a military base seems to own rose wood. But if they move to a new group, then they easily wish to change and copy the new styles. Kind of like following a fad. 5. Short memories No I dont mean their dumb or something, I mean they forget the past or let go of the past easier. They dont hold grudges quite so bad. Filipinos are not more family oriented than in other cultures, but what makes them Filipinos is they think they are. No offense. But many people have strong relations with their families. I lived in a home for six months and had to listen to my Brother in law tell me how family oriented they are as he yells at his father, and puts down his dead mother. I watched as just about every male member of the family had girlfriends, and the wives knew and ran those girls out of town when they got pregnant. I watched families that lived across the street visit each other once a year. I had a Filipino tell me that my daughter (half Filipino isnt Filipino enough to live in his house with my 2nd wife for a short time). So in any respect, Im not say they are less family oriented, but that we all have our issues with getting along, and Filipinos are no more family oriented than other cultures. This is according to the yahoo answers dot com. Well I agree with these because most of the Filipinos come from poor families and they can survive any trials becsuse they are already used to it. They are already down, so they on;y way to go is up. In the Philippines the most common thing that is talked about is the government. This is because this is the largest contributor of the poverty in the Philippines.

Impact of Urban Living on Biodiversity and Ecosystems

Impact of Urban Living on Biodiversity and Ecosystems It is estimated that almost more than one half of the worlds population is presently living in urban areas (Sakieh et al. 2016; Weigi et al. 2014). In many parts of the world, increasing urban lands has caused changing land use and land cover (LULC) (Wu 2014). Biodiversity, ecosystem processes and functions and human habitants in an urban environment are influenced by the speed and spatiotemporal pattern of urbanization (Wu et al. 2011; Asgarian et al. 2015; Sangani et al. 2015; Wu 2014; Jaafari et al. 2015). Landscape beauty is being affected by LULC changes and urbanization has led to the destruction of aesthetic values in many parts of the world. Scenic landscapes, as one of the ecosystem services, are elements of the environment with the potential for human enjoyment and in some cases they are considered as valuable parameters for nature conservation and management (Bishop and Hulse 1994). The landscape is continually changing due to human activities but its aesthetics usually su ffers from poor quantification and inclusion in management plans. According to Naveh (1995), scenic landscapes are products of interactivity between humans and natural systems where natural landscapes become inhabited, influenced or altered by mutual relationships between ecological and socioeconomic processes. Such interrelated feedbacks can lead to physical modifications of the environment that ultimately can be seen, so landscape aesthetic assessment seem to be essential in land use planning. Understanding, analysis, monitoring and modeling of urban growth is crucial for the management of current urban systems as well as for the planning of future growth (Zhou et al. 2014). Geospatial predictive models and change detection methods can provide a further level of understanding of the causes and impacts of urban growth mechanisms (Sakieh et al. 2014a). In the process of decision making, land managers need to examine the consequences of the urban development process. Regarding the progress in computing power, easy access to spatial data sets and development of functional computer-based models, now there is a possibility in which land use managers and decision makers can evaluate the outcome of their decisions under different alternatives and at the minimum possible cost (Sakieh et al. 2014b). Inclusion of new methodologies such as spatial multi-criteria evaluation (SMCE) can further improve representation and modelling of urban growth patterns, which finally provide spatial d ecision support systems (SDSS) for better planning and management of urban areas (Dai et al. 2001; Jie et al. 2010; Youssef et al. 2011; Xu et al. 2011; Pourebrahim et al. 2011; Yuechen et al. 2011; Bagheri et al. 2013; Bathrellos et al. 2012; Sheng et al. 2012; Jeong et al. 2013, Sakieh et al. 2014b). Since 2000, there have been noticeable efforts for developing microsimulation LULC change methods such as cellular automata (CA) and agent-based models (Goodarzi et al.2016). CA-based models have a natural compatibility to raster geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) data and are appropriate for detail resolution modeling and simulating dynamic spatial processes (Sullivan and Torrens 2000). In recent years, there have been developed some CA-based models such as SLEUTH (Slope, Landuse, Exclusion, Urban, Transportation, and Hillshade) (Clarke et al. 1997), CLUE-S (the Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent) (Verburg et al. 2002), iCity (Stevens et al. 2007) and DINAMICA (Soares-Filho et al. 2002). Compared with the above mentioned spatial models, the SLEUTH model requires fewer input layers and also offers various alternatives for future urban growth prediction (Norman et al. 2012). These characteristics of SLEUTH model have made it as one of the most-implemented and popular methods for land use simulation at different scales (e.g. regional, national, and even binational) (Maithani 2010; Norman et al. 2012; Chaudhuri and Clarke 2013). However, there are a number of limitations with SLEUTH. The first of these is that it is computationally expensive. It requires a high number of model runs using a multi-stage calibration process to narrow down the coefficient value for each input parameter (Goldstein 2003). The second drawback is related to non-linearity of the model for the combination of the coefficients. The Brute Force method[1] which is used in this paper for calibrating the SLEUTH can fall in local maxima and may miss the better coefficient set (Goldstein 2003, Jafarnejad et al. 2015). Urban expansion is a complicated event which mainly occurs because of increasing population and the need for more construction. Consequently, vast lands of valuable ecosystems such as agricultural lands, forests and pastures are consumed and converted to urban areas (Sakieh et al. 2014b). Therefore it is essential to understand and recognize this process in order to implement effective management and avoid reducing the aesthetic value of landscapes. To achieve this goal, areas with high aesthetic value should be recognized at the first step. In this regard, there are various approaches to determine the aesthetic impacts on different areas of the city including expert-based methods such as Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE), statistical approaches such Logistic Regression (LR) and Artificial Intelligence-based methods such as Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) Neural Networks (Riveira and Maseda 2006). These methods are repeatedly being implemented for suitability mapping of utilities such as urbanization (Pijanowski et al. 2002; Hu and Lo 2007; Pao 2008; Mahiny and Clarke 2012; Sakieh et al. 2015), environmental conservation (Singh and Kushwaha 2011; Mehri et al. 2014; Sakieh et al. 2015) and agricultural activities (Mozumder and Tripathi 2014; Bodaghabadi et al. 2015) but are less implemented for mapping aesthetic values. The MLP neural network approach has a remarkable ability to derive meaning from complicated or imprecise data and detect trends that are too complex for either humans or other computer techniques. MLP is a more accurate modelling method compared to the others (Saeidi and Salmanmahiny 2014) and has been used in this research. Accordingly, creating a suitable model to predict the landscape scenic value could provide a basis for explicit, quick and accurate integration of aesthetic evaluation into land-use planning efforts. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to evaluate the landscape aesthetic suitability and predict the spatial patterns of u rbanized lands in an effort to preserve landscapes of high aesthetic value. The following section describes how a directed modeling framework can be employed to introduce urban growth scenarios with regarding landscape aesthetic suitability, and finally to develop a city without considerable impact on its aesthetic suitability. Materials and methods Study area Gorgan is one of the cities in the northeast of Iran and the capital of Golestan province, located in 36 °, 49 ´ N and 54 °, 24 ´ E (Fig. 1). Gorgan has a mild and humid climate though summers are very hot and humid. The regional topography is very diverse and includes mountains, forests and grasslands, steppes and plains, desert and barren, rivers, wetlands and agricultural lands. Lush Hyrcanian temperate forests are located in the south, while flat areas with farmlands and rangelands make the main structure of the landscape in the north part of the case study. the region is also a destination for about two millions of tourists each year because of its aesthetic values and touristic environment, (Mehrnews 2015).Regarding the nomination of the area as a new province of Iran, rapid population growth has occurred that caused the increasing of built-up surfaces and consequently has made a series of conflicts between land developers and conservation agencies. These disagreements emphasise the importance of LULC planning in this area (Sakieh et al. 2016 b). Figure (1) Scenario based urban growth modelling In this research the SLEUTH cellular automata urban growth model was used to predict dynamics of Gorgan City developing under three different scenarios including historical, managed and aesthetically sound urban growth up to year 2030. The Historical Urban Growth (HUG) scenario assumes that the present pattern of urban growth will be maintained in the future. At the Managed Urban Growth (MUG) scenario, we tried to dictate an infill form of urban development with the aim of protecting the immediate environment of the city against urbanization. In the Aesthetically sound Urban Growth (AUG) scenario, an aesthetic suitability layer was used as the extra excluded layer in SLEUTH model to protect patches of high scenic value. Fig. 2 depicts a research flowchart of the study. The procedure for determining the aesthetic suitability map which was used as the excluded layer is explained in the following section. Figure (2) Aesthetic suitability mapping using MLP MLP is a feed forward artificial neural network model that maps different sets of input data toward a set of applicable and meaningful outputs (Rumelhart 1986). In a feed forward neural network, the information moves only in forward direction, from the input nodes, over the hidden nodes and to the output nodes. A node is considered to be a connection point that can receive, create, store or send data along distributed network routes (Ciresan et al. 2012). Exclusive of the input nodes, each node is a neuron or processing element with a nonlinear transfer function (Fig. 3). There are no cycles or loops in the network. MLP utilizes a supervised learning technique called back propagation for training the network (Rosenblatt et al. 1961; Rumelhart 1986). Learning process conducts in the perceptron by changing the connection weights after the processing of each part of data. Figure (3) Back propagation includes two main stages, forward and backward propagation, to achieve its modification of the neural status. During model training, each sample (e.g. a feature vector related to a single pixel) is entered into the input layer and the receiving node sums the weighted signals from all nodes to which it is connected in the former layer. In this regard, the input to a single node is weighted based on the following equation: Eq. (1) given: wij indicates the weight between node i and node j and o is the output from node i. The result from a given node is j is then computed from: Eq. (2) Function f is often a non-linear sigmoidal transformation that is used to weight the sum of inputs before it sends a signal to the next node. When the forward pass is finished, the performance of the resultant nodes are compared with their corresponding expected values. When a pattern is given to the network, each output node will differ from the preferred results, the difference is linked to the error in the network as well. This error is then propagated backward with weights for corresponding connections modified using a relation known as the delta rule: Eq. (3) Given: ÃŽÂ · is the learning rate of the model; ÃŽÂ ´ is the computed error; and ÃŽÂ ± is the momentum factor. This factor intends to avoid oscillation problems during the search for the minimum value on the error surface and is used to speed up the convergence procedure (Richards et al. 1999). The forward and backward passes continue until the network is properly trained for the characteristics of the targeted utility which in this research is the scenic beauty. Model training is aimed to retrieve the correct weights both for the connections between the input and hidden layers, and between the hidden and the output layer for the categorization of the unknown pixels. The input pattern is categorized to a class that possesses the node with the greatest activation level. The two training elements, automatic training and dynamic, can be employed to automatically execute the MLP. If one or both are used, the training procedure automatically restarts when the algorithm is highly oscillated or become trapped in a local minimum error surface. For each automatic restart of the model training procedure, one of the following items occurs to either learning rate or the sample used in the training procedure, or both. If only automatic training is selected and the first occurrence that the training procedure restarts, the starting weights are randomized. Through the next restarts, the weights are randomized and the learning rate is halved. If both automatic training and dynamic learning rate are chosen and the training restarts automatically, new samples are selected, the weights are randomized, and the learning rate splits in half. If only dynamic rate is chosen, and the learning rate is progressively lowered based on the number of iterations assigned and the start and end learning rates. For instance, if 10,000 iterations are specified and the model is configured with start rate of 0.1 and end rate of 0.001, it will divide 0.009 by 10,000 and lower the learning rate by the result at each iteration (Civco 1993). The acceptable error rate is related to the learning of the network and it is assessed based on the Root Mean Square (RMS error). Lower values of RMS error and higher values of total r2 shows the better fit of model. The MLP algorithm can produce both a hard and soft classifier. The hard classification output generates a discrete layer in which each cell belongs to a definitive category. Activation level maps, however, unlike the output of the hard classifier, are a series of images depicting a degree of membership for each pixel to each possible category. The output is set of images (one per class). Unlike the probability map, the sum of values for any location will not necessarily sum to 1. This is because the results from the neural network are acquired through standardizing the signal values in the range of 0-1 with the activation equation. Larger values imply a higher membership degree of the membership belonging to that corresponding category. The computation of the hard classification result is on the basis of the activation level maps. Data used for aesthetic suitability modelling through MLP method In the MLP analysis of the targeted area, multiple of factors were considered as input layers. Due to the characteristics of Gorgan City, a set of urban and natural criteria was used to model its landscape aesthetic values. These criteria were outlined during previous studies performed in our research area included gardens and agricultural lands (Othman et al, 2015; Mobargheie and Torbati 2014), tree type diversity, vegetation density (Aminzadeh et al, 2014; Weiqi et al, 2014; Chen et al, 2014; Kremer et al, 2016; Martina et al, 2016), topographic diversity (Arrowsmith 2001), buildings height and density (Weiqi et al. 2014; Chen et al. 2014), forest and urban parks (Ayad 2005; Weiqi et al. 2014), ancient sites and squares, refuges and boulevards (Bahrainy 1999; Aminzadeh et al. 2014). The GIS layers of gardens and agricultural lands, parks, squares, boulevards and refuges were obtained from the land use map maintained by the Gorgan municipality. The values of cells within these layers, together with ancient sites, were standardized using a user-defined function and based on the experts opinions. Whereas the relationship between the map value and fuzzy membership did not follow a certain function (e.g. linear, J-shaped or Sigmoidal), the user-defined function was the most applicable function and the user could reclass the map in the standard range. The ancient sites layer was obtained from Department of Cultural Heritage, Crafts and Tourism of Golestan province. The tree type for the study area consisted of six categories of tree communities (scale 1:25,000). Pattern analysis (with window size of 3 ÃÆ'- 3 pixels = 8100 m2) was applied as a filter to count the number of various classes inner a square vicinity of the central cell. Those pixels with three or more different categories in their vicinity were chosen to represent the diversity of a given location for its tree types. By using a Landsat TM image for the study area for 2012, vegetation density was calculated using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) formula: Eq (4) NDVI is a widely used graphical indicator that can be used for detecting vegetative land cover. This index can be calculated based on red and near-infra-red (Xred, Xnir) spectral bands of Landsat image as equation 4 (McFeeters 1996). The layer was standardized using a symmetrical linear function having inflection values as: a=2879, b=5795, c=7595 and d=9545 (Fig. 4). Figure.(4) As the graph shows, by increasing the vegetation density (that is increasing NDVI values) to the point b, scenic value of landscape increases, then in a specific area remains constant (point c) then over increasing of the vegetation density due to restrictions in visibility detracts from scenic value of landscape. The building height and density layer was produced using the current status map of building density provided by the Gorgan municipality. Using a monotonically decreasing linear function in order to determine classification, this layer was standardized. The landscape aesthetic value was therefore decreased by increasing the building height and density, due to the viewshed being blocked. In the spatial input factors, a topographic diversity layer was also included. To determine this layer, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the research area was acquired from National Cartographic Centre of Iran. A surface shape categorisation was performed on a DEM layer, which consisted of multiple topographic features: peak, flat, ravine, pit, ridge, saddle, slope hillside, saddle hillside, convex hillside, concave hillside and inflection hillside. The categorized layer was then analysed using a mode filter (window size of 3 ÃÆ'- 3 pixels) to specify a new score to the central cell based on most frequent values within the window. Then, a filter size of 7 ÃÆ'- 7 pixels was used to count the number of various categories within the neighbourhood of a central pixel to achieve the final map. This layer demonstrates the most diversified locations in terms of topographic features. The layer was standardized using a monotonically increasing linear function, whereby categories with highe r diversity got the higher score in the standardised value. Fig. 5 portrays factor layers used for aesthetic suitability mapping in this study. Figure (5) After preparing required inputs, the MLP model was configured according to the following data: Input variables: number of input variables = 8 (standardized factor maps) Input specifications: training points file = a raster map of 164 points, which retains the location of 164 attractive (99) and non-attractive (65) spots | maximum training pixels used = 200 | maximum testing pixels used = 200 Network topology: input layer nodes: 8 (equals to the number of input data) | output layer nodes = 1 (continuous surface of aesthetic suitability) | hidden layers =1 | hidden layer nodes = 16 Training parameters: the dynamic learning rate was employed | start learning rate = 0.01 | end learning rate = 0.001 | Momentum factor = 0. 5 | sigmoid constant a = 1.0 Stopping criteria: root mean square (RMS) error = 0.01 | iterations = 10,000 Output function = sigmoidal Once the model was trained, its performance was evaluated by plotting training RMS versus testing RMS during 10,000 model iterations. Lower values for testing error during iterations indicates proper training of the model, and therefore, it can be used to produce aesthetic suitability surface. Data processing for SLEUTH modeling For the SLEUTH modeling undertaken in this study, four urban extent years depicting the distribution of manmade features over time, two layers of the transportation network for two different time periods, one excluded aesthetics layer from urbanization, slope and hillshade layers were used. These input data layers were prepared by the integrated application of geographic information systems and remote sensing. As a model requirement, all binary urban/non-urban layers were stretched linearly and converted into a GIF format. The urban and transportation layers were created based on Landsat MSS and TM images for the years 1987, 1992, 2000 and 2010. These were then used to predict the expansion of Gorgan in 2030. Using a 30-m digital elevation model (DEM), slope percent and hillshade layers were derived. For the first and second modeled scenarios, hydrographical networks (rivers, dams and wetlands), dense forests and roads were used as excluded layers from urban growth. For the third sce nario, the aesthetic layer was added as an exclusory layer. These are shown in Fig. 6. Figure (6) Model calibration SLEUTH is a CA-based model in which five coefficients (diffusion, breed, spread, slope and road gravity) control four types of growth rules including new spreading center growth, spontaneous growth, edge growth and road gravity growth (Jantz et al. 2014). In addition, the straightforward calibration method applied by SLEUTH makes it adaptable to any particular geographic area over time (Clarke et al. 1996). In order to show the relative importance, each coefficient has a dimensionless value ranging between 0 (least important) to 100 (most important). During the calibration process, the form of urban expansion was detected via the four growth rules. The prediction of the model was based on the best range of refined coefficients derived from the calibration step. Table (1) shows the relationships between growth types and growth coefficients. Table (1) The main assumption of the SLEUTH model is based on the inherent pattern of urban dynamics whereby the city will witness the same growth in the future based on its historical trend in the past (Clarke et al. 1997). During the calibration process, the model seeks to derive the best range for each coefficient to enable better simulation based on local historical data (Silva and Clarke 2002). SLEUTH model benefits from a stochastic computation algorithm known as the Monte Carlo method. The model utilizes Monte Carlo iterations stochastically to generate multiple simulations of urban growth so parameters are standardized in a range between 0 and 100. These inputs reflect the relative contribution of each parameter to the dynamics of urban growth in the study area (Sakieh et al. 2014b). Finally, by using the best set of derived coefficients from three steps (coarse, fine and final) of calibration, the model was executed for the simulation of the historical data set. The number of Monte Ca rlo iterations support the robustness of final coefficients to run the prediction part of the model (Candau 2002; Jantz et al. 2004; Sakieh et al. 2014b). For the coarse calibration step, the default parameter values from the sample calibration scenario were employed. Five Monte Carlo iterations were specified for the coarse calibration phase, and growth parameters were set at their widest range of 0 25 100 as START, STEP and STOP values, respectively. A goodness of fit metric, known as the Optimal SLEUTH Metric (OSM) will provide the most robust results for SLEUTH calibration. The OSM is the product of the compare, population, edges, clusters, slope, X-mean, and Y-mean metrics (Dietzel and Clarke 2007). These seven metrics range between 0 and 1 and are multiplied together to calculate the OSM. The iterations are then sorted based on this metric and the best ranges of performing coefficients are chosen for the subsequent calibration stage. Applying the OSM metrics of the best perf orming iterations, the five multipliers were refined and reduced for use in the fine calibration step. The fine calibration step was executed through full resolution input layers in eight Monte Carlo iterations. Based on OSM values, the ranges for the five growth parameters in SLEUTH were further narrowed for the final phase of the calibration mode, which used 10 Monte Carlo iterations. Finally, the ranges for averaging values of the five coefficients of urban development in SLEUTH were set and the averaging was run for 100 Monte Carlo iterations. Model prediction After the calibration and performance validation of the model, the prediction step was executed using the entire data coverage and 100 Monte Carlo iterations. Prediction of the model was based on the initial seed year of the current urban pattern, using those refined values of coefficients. The output of the SLEUTH model is a continues surface in which each cell has a probability value to become an urbanized space in the future. This map is produced for every year including the first year (1987) to the last year (2030). There are three different methods used to simulate the expansion of urban area under different scenarios in the SLEUTH model. In the first method, best-à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ t multipliers derived from the calibration phases can be altered (Leao et al. 2004; Rafiee et al. 2009) and consequently the growth rules will change. In the second method, the excluded layer is weighted through a continuous range of resistance values against urbanization to show that even cells within the excluded layer have the potential to be urbanized under different probabilities (Oguz et al. 2007; Jantz et al. 2010; Mahiny and Clarke 2012, 2013). In the third method, the constraints of self-organization can be modià ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ed (Yang and Lo 2003; Xi et al. 2009). In this study, the first and the second methods were applied for two scenarios. The coefficients were altered in the MUG and AUG scenarios and an aesthetic suitability map of the study area was also used as an extra excluded layer in the AUG scenario. In th is case, the historical trend of the urban growth and two different scenarios were forecasted (Table 2). The adopted scenarios in this study used additional information regarding the study area and its development in the past. In addition, it was acknowledged that land use plans are mostly controlled by master plans for cities derived from regional land use planning (Makhdoum 2001; Dezhkam et al. 2014). The adopted scenarios were set up according to assumptions of uncontrolled and controlled growth, which allows decision makers to construct a quantitative comparative basis for evaluation of different growth alternatives. After calibration of the model, scenarios were introduced to model urban growth to the year 2030 by using two methods of parameter modification and the inclusion of the hydrology, dense forest and transportation exclusion layers in the first two scenarios as well as aesthetic exclusion layers in the third scenario. Table (2) The first scenario assumed that the present pattern of urban growth will be maintained in the future, and therefore, the originally derived parameters were used. The first exclusion layer including hydrographical networks, dense forests and roads were used for this. The prediction was conducted by means of the same resolution data and 100 Monte Carlos iterations. The second scenario used the same exclusion layer as the HUG scenario, but spread and breed coefficients were reduced (from 30 and 59 to 20 and 40 respectively) to dictate an infill urban development with the aim of protecting the immediate environment of the city against urbanization. The slope resistance coefficient was decreased to one-half of its original value, to reflect the current status of urbanization in Gorgan City which shows increasing development on steeper slopes. The third scenario (AUG) used the same coefficient values as those used for the MUG simulation, but the aesthetic suitability layer was used as an extra excluded layer to protect areas of high aesthetic value. The output from the SLEUTH model is a probability map, which shows the probability of each single pixel becoming urbanized. In order to produce a clear map that indicates future urbanized areas, a 90 % value was taken as a threshold to depict those cells which were considered most probable ones to become urbanized by 2030. [1] Brute Force refers to any of several problem-solving methods involving the evaluation of multiple possible answers (urban growth patterns) for model fitness.

Essay --

Gasoline and diesel fuels form the back bone of the present road transport. The internal combustion engine is being used in vehicles for the past 100 years approximately. But the problem with the engines is the limitation of fossil fuel reserves and the emissions of greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. These fossil fuels generate emissions of pollutants such as PM, Nox and CO which are hazardous to the human being. It is the need of the hour to vouch for other renewable energy sources to overcome the energy crisis and to achieve decarburisation, energy security and cleaner air to breathe. Fuel cells are the devices that convert chemical energy to electrical energy without the emissions of harmful exhaust gases.. This paper summarizes the configuration of the fuel cell hybrid vehicle. It briefly describes the function of each component and the losses occuring in each component. Fuel cells are the most quiet and reliable as they have no moving parts. The efficiency is about twice that of the internal combustion engine. [2]. There is no Carnot limitation as in case of IC engine. The most commonly used fuel cell is hydrogen fuel cell in the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). Hydrogen is a clean burning fuel. The exhaust is pure water. The combination of a fuel cell with a battery is studied in this paper. The hybridization of the fuel cell helps in reducing the size of the fuel cell and its initial cost but it increases the vehicle complexity, weight and the battery cost. At higher loads and greater acceleration, the battery provides surplus power and increases the fuel cell efficiency. At low loads the fuel cell is used to provide the required power. The battery is also used for the start up of the vehicle ... ...es by 2030. The cost of FCHEVs and BEVs are not largely affected by the changes in electricity costs, but the ICE and FCEV costs are greatly affected by the fuel cost. This occurs partially due to the different powertrain efficiencies. Comparing the overall lifecycle costs, it can be observed that FCHEVs and BEVs are cheaper as compared to FCEVs and ICEs. But the FCHEVs and BEVs are sensitive to the overall capital and running costs. For instance, the BEVs in particular are sensitive to battery size. The lifecycle costs of ICEs and BEVs are about 1.75 times higher than that of the FCHEVs and the BEVs. There are several challenges that are to be met in the near future for the FCHEVs to achieve commercialization, reliability, cost effectiveness and performance. Fuel cell hybrid vehicles can definitely be the clean technology used in the future of automotive engines.

Aimster Debate :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea of sharing media files over the Internet has become a controversial subject as of late. While file sharing applications such as Napster are currently under fire from the US government and from Music Recording companies, one would think that no one would try to mimic Napster’s technology. Johnny Deep, a computer consultant in Troy, New York, has been hailed as the creator of â€Å"The Next Napster†. Deep is the mind behind â€Å"Aimster†, named after his daughter, Aimee. Aimster piggybacks the common and very popular instant- messaging services such as AOL Instant Messenger, AOL, and MSN Messaging Service. Aimster, a free download from www.aimster.com, allows users to swap files with users on the buddy lists, or there is the option of searching all Aimster users with a â€Å"guest† option. Not only can users share audio files; they can share their pictures, their winamp playlists, and any other file on their computer. As of Janu ary 2001 Aimster racked up over 3 million users worldwide. AOL and other messaging services cannot block Aimster use, since it does not run through ISP Servers, rather, every Aimster member’s personal computer acts as a server.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The controversy continues as more and more Napster wanna-be’s are thrown into the mix. Deep believes that the Recording Industry will have less of a problem with his software, since Aimster users only share their files with friends and family on their buddy list, an act that is similar to loaning a CD to a friend – which is hardly illegal. In interview, Deep was quoted as saying â€Å"A lot of people say we’ll be sued not because we are doing anything wrong, but because we are successful.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In my opinion, file-sharing should not be getting the negative media attention that it does. I am an avid user of all file-sharing applications: Napster, Aimster, KaZaA and scour. I have over 600 mp3 files on my computer, and I’m downloading three more while I type this. I use file sharing not only as a way to download a song that I hear on the radio, but to look for new music.

Retail Tracking Systems

Retail Tracking Systems Retail Pro or MicroStrategy? Retail Pro is Business Intelligence software that enables retail store owners to customize a â€Å"Point-of-Sale† (POS) method of retailing. The key feature of this software is the ability to create multiple revenues of sales inside one store. The software allows employees to select from an array of add-on modules to run a retail establishment using strategic planning and undergoing the various tasks involved operating a retail establishment.Retail Pro is flexible, easy to use, and accommodates small businesses to large corporations by increasing retention and customer satisfaction by creating the â€Å"better client experience†. (Retail Pro International, 2010) Retail Pro Software Features * Software infrastructure * Point of Sale and Store Operations * Merchandising * Central Customer Management * Central Returns Management * Oracle Database Engine This software creates very flexible reporting of business data you n eed at the time you need it.The POS and back office has extensive capabilities creating a work flow customized upon the needs of your business such as inventory management, purchase ordering, integration with payment solutions, store replenishment, receiving, and employee management. Retail Pro is perfect for businesses starting out small and grows as the business grows. There are several modules that are centrally focused on what types of products you sell in your retail establishment. Some of these modules are as listed: * Gifts and Toy Solutions Hard Goods Solutions * Home Furnishing Solutions * Specialty Apparel Solutions * Jewelry Solutions Each of these modules specialize in helping keep track of inventory, merchandising, customer management using role-specific dashboards capable of period to period analysis and reporting to improve business, store performance, and profit margins. The advantages of its Business Intelligence is that it saves time and money, improves profit marg ins, increases business and store performance, and maximizes returns on existing data sources. Retail Pro International, 2010) MicroStrategy is Business Intelligence Software for retail tracking systems in the palm of your hand. It’s the Mobile Business Intelligence that applies iPad as a business tool. You can access dashboards to create brilliant business analysis and reports any time, any where. Besides having extraordinary displays for data, MicroStrategy includes the following features: * Unlimited data analysis * Data mining * Forecasting * Operations Management * Executive decision makingMicroStrategy’s mobile iPhone and iPad views videos on YouTube and views Podcasts in iTunes. This mobile retail tracking system even comes with a free custom dashboard. The Business Intelligence Architecture is low in cost for ownership and delivers high performance and sophisticated analytics. If you are interested in Beta Programs, there are options one can participate. The fo llowing is what is included in MicroStrategy’s business applications: * Mobile Business Intelligence Financial Analysis * HR Analytics * Supply Chain Analytics * Sales Analytics * CRM * Balanced Scoreboard MicroStrategy is World Class Business Intelligence for all your business needs. It is very user friendly migrating from departmental Business Intelligence to enterprise Business Intelligence. MicroStrategy can develop and deploy department Business Intelligence applications quickly and deliver enterprise Business Intelligence with higher performance and efficiency. (MicroStrategy, 2010)I knew there was a strategy involved in running a retail establishment, but I did not realize that retail tracking systems available today creating your Point-of-Sale could be as easy as using the computer to keep track of the elements involved in various levels regarding merchandizing to keeping inventory, customer satisfaction to the â€Å"better client experience, and payment solutions to business analysis reports. It is wonderful to know that there are solutions you can implement that can make your business experience a good one!What features of a Point-of-Sale retail tracking system would be important to me would be directly related to how I plan to expand my business levels beyond the brick and mortar retail establishment. My boutique is going to retail various products that I create and design myself which includes fashion design apparel, jewelry, home decor items, Nature Crafts, custom-made gifts, and toys—items that are included inside my product labels of my brand. I would have to start out with a tracking system that meets these needs to run my retail establishment which are as follows: * Inventory Management system for each label separately Merchandising of products under each label separately * Payment Solutions that allow payment by other methods that are not cash purchases * Customer Management * Point-of-Sale options * Business Intelligence for a nalytical reports and business operations * Employee Management * Consumer behavior, geographical, economic, and social trends statistics * Security of business operations and store location I plan to add to my business by featuring instructional classes teaching various types of crafts a couple times a week, changing the activities when consumer interest and participation changes.I am also adding a new element of offering custom designed clothing and accessories upon customer request. A couple of my product labels will expand in the operations of how the product is presented to consumers by expanding the activities and product in various ways. Basically, the changes that will happen beyond the brick and mortar retail establishment will happen upon expanding the different business levels of each label, adding a few new features that compliment the products, and by getting customer participation teaching various art activities.I will also expand my marketing boundaries by adding a we bsite customers can purchase my products, contemplate the possibilities of creating a product catalog, and have certain products available to consumers placed in other stores that carry similar items. Plans of expansion beyond the retail location will need a more complex Point-of-sale retail tracking system than what would already be in place. Features I would consider important due to the changes of business operations at this point would be as follows: Multiple levels of sales reflecting the expansion of the various labels group * Website operations and Point-of-Sale system attached to various labels group * Packaging and drop shipping department added to business operations which will require a more complex system so that product sales are attached to correct label group * Retail accounts added to business revenue * Adding a Point-of-Sale system that involves the custom designed apparel made upon customer requests, or alterations made to purchased store apparel * Customizable Bus iness Intelligence features and POS system accommodating business expansion levelsBased upon my business needs at the beginning of my retail establishment, features that I would require of a POS retail tracking system would be relatively basic of retail operations and tasks. I would want to start my retail business operations with a POS tracking system that would allow the changes of various nature when I started to expand my business operations. Of the two tracking systems discussed in this report, Retail Pro and MicroStrategy Business Intelligence Software, the system I feel would be the best fit would be Retail Pro because of the versatility of the Business Intelligence features the software includes.Retail Pro has the capability of customizing the system of operations to accommodate the complexity of each product label group as expansion is implemented. My business level of operations is definitely one that does not resemble what would be considered a traditional retail system o f operations because each product label is considered to be a separate unit of business to start. When expansion changes the avenues on which each product label makes revenue, the already in-place POS tracking system has to be able to accommodate these changes.Retail Pro’s features and customizable system of operations can accommodate changes very easily. Even with the most complex system of operations a business could have, Retail Pro would be the best fit to meet all the needs and expectations I need to operate my retail business. MicroStrategy is, in my opinion, not as convenient a fit for my establishment and nature of my multiple revenue types because the product’s mobile capabilities is not a feature I consider important, if at all, when choosing a POS retail tracking system and it working efficiently for its purpose matching the structure of my business operations.I would use a POS retail tracking system upon business start-up because starting my POS system as t he business grows will be a positive action that will get results for the purpose of the tracking system benefits. As my business grows, doing business without a tracking system in place would be a sure failure. Company websites included inside this report: http://www. retailpro. com/ http://www. microstrategy. com/

Different Definitions of Good Health

In this section I would be focusing on the ways people interpret health and welfare. Health is defined differently by individual, communities and countries, these ways may be defined either positive or negative. The World Health Organisation The World Health Organisation (WHO) had defined health in being â€Å"a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.† This definition is a negative approach to health because the definition is vague and can categorised everyone as being unhealthy. In my opinion I find the WHO definition in being unrealistic and unachievable because the definition states, â€Å"absence of disease or infirmity.† As human being we all have one point in our health had gotten the flu. The WHO excluding ‘disease’ and ‘infirmity’ would classify us all as being unhealthy. Another reason why I disagree with this definition is that someone with a disease or illness can maintain a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being. For example, a patient with diabetes would still be in a complete state of physical, mental and social well-being. Not everyone with a disease or illness would lose their complete state of physical, mental and social well-being. https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=RvGXLF3uxd0C&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=seedhouse+health+a+commodity&source=bl&ots=f4etwSpSrA&sig=m9CREsjnSqFb0QcahH_mhwPlNO8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=0IMyVM2eG87PaLeigZAI#v=onepage&q=seedhouse%20health%20a%20commodity&f=false (accessed on 09/10/2015) http://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d4163 (accessed on 09/10/2015) David Seedhouse 2009 David Seedhouse described health and welfare being an â€Å"equivalent to the set of conditions that enable a person to work to fulfil his/her realistic chosen and biological potential†. The definition is positive approach to health because Seedhouse states â€Å"work to fulfil his/her realistic chosen and biological potential.† This would give us the idea that health is a normal process and illnesses can occur without our will. There are a majority of individuals unfortunately that inherit diseases that may have incredible result on how they carry on with their ordinary life. For example a person with a hearing or visual impairment may fulfil his/her potential in exam within the physical constraints would not be considered unhealthy because the person may not hear or see very well. Although Seedhouse definition is vague, I agree with the concept of it; healthier people are more able to do what they desire because they have fewer constraints. The constraints can be psychological, biological or social. A biological constraint can be our organs, cells or tissues. Whilst a psychological constraint can be emotions, cognitions and motivation. A social constraint is our family, friends, community and society. http://www.ukessays.com/essays/health/defining-what-health-is.php#ixzz3o61QlKFV (accessed on 09/10/2015) http://www.moteclife.co.uk/docs/Education/Concept%20of%20Health.pdf (accessed on 09/10/2015) http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/13/1/87.full.pdf (accessed on 09/10/2015) Channel 4 Channel 4 defines health in three ways; negative, positive and holistic. According to Channel 4 the negative definition of health is â€Å"free from illness, upset, tiredness, or anything else that might be a symptom of not being in good health.† This isn’t an accurate definition for health in my opinion because if you are upset doesn’t mean you are not in â€Å"good health.† Majority of people are upset for a short period of time, so stating that being upset, which is an emotion, as bad health is not truthful. Benedict Carey had stated that tears are good for reducing our stress levels, removes toxins, kills bacteria, releases our feelings and surprisingly helps us see. This further proves that being upset is good for our health. Positive health is defined by Channel 4 as someone informing another person â€Å"who has recently taken up a sport and say: ‘you look very healthy’. This definition demonstrates the effectiveness of taking up a spo rt because of the words â€Å"very healthy† helps draw that picture. Read also Six Dimensions of Health Worksheet I would agree with this definition for health because exercising benefits us and improves our health. This is because in situation where someone would need to run or defend themselves, it would be essential to exercise. Taking up a sport would also benefit a person emotionally and socially because team work can increase social circle, have more friends, and emotionally can lower stress level. Channel 4 defines holistic as being â€Å"physically very fit and free from illness, they could still have emotional problems.† This meaning that in order to be healthy you would need to be ‘physically fit’ and have no illnesses, such as the flu or diabetes. I agree with that you would need to be physically fit because exercising or taking up a sport would help strengthen the body and lower the risk of diseases, such as coronary heart disease and cancer. http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/beyondblue/2011/02/7-ways-tears-and-crying-heal.html (accessed on 09/10/2015) http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/fitness/Pages/Whybeactive.aspx (accessed on 09/10/2015) http://www.channel4learning.com/sites/gcsease/health_social/2_1_detail.html (accessed on 09/10/2015) Medical News Today Medical News Today (MNT) had defined health in two aspect; mental health and physical health. According to MNT mental health â€Å"refers to the absence of mental illness.† Although the definition is vague, it still is a positive definition of health because it defines mental health in being without a disorder. If someone can cope with the usual stresses of life, they can work efficiently and productively and is able to support their community means they have good mental health. An example would be a student coping with exams. MNT also defines physical health in a positive way because the definition states that physical health is the â€Å"regular physical activity (exercise), good nutrition, and adequate rest.† I agree with the definition because nutrition, rest and exercise is essential for good health. If someone doesn’t eat a balance diet, they are more likely to be malnourished. Regular exercise is important since it benefits people socially, mentally and physical. In this case our body would be healthier and stronger. An adequate rest is essential for work effort because the correct hours of sleep would result on better work effort. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/150999.php (accessed on 09/10/2015) Culture Health The word culture is associated with the norms and values that are shared in a particular group or society. These norms and values can shape our views on what is acceptable and what is not. For example; Somalia culture forbids people from drinking alcohol, whilst it is seen perfectly alright in Czech Republic to drink an excessive amount of alcohol. This is negative definition of health because of the affect alcohol has on a person’s physical, emotional and social development. There has been research to show that the ethnic minority groups in Britain experience disadvantages and discrimination when receiving treatment in a healthcare setting, such as hospitals. They would experience poorer health, which would reduce their health expectancy and have more of a risk in long-term health problems, such as sickle cell. The government had set up health campaigns, like Change 4 Life, which aims to tackle obesity in households with children. However, the information presented in health campaigns has a lack of knowledge and understandings for other cultures.

Deprived of education Essay

From a very early age I have cherished a desire to work for the betterment of children. I hail from Iran and in my life I have witnessed many instances where children are deprived of education and even necessary means of sustenance. Most of these children do not get any emotional support while they are forced to lead a challenging life amidst a harsh social environment. Within my home country social organizations lack sufficient power so they are unable to make much difference to the lives of those children who have been adversely affected by some unprecedented events. Not many opportunities exist in Iran for some one who is dedicated to making child care a career so I have come to the U. S. A in order to gain academic skills that can be applied to the betterment of children, whilst I am pursuing my studies I intend to gain some practical hands on experience in various fields related to child care and child development. I possess some prior work experiences which have some commonalities to the internship programme of the Family Stress Centre. I have worked as student assistant at Santa Monica University. Amongst the various responsibilities that were given to me I was assigned a task which required me to help children learn with the aid of computer software. I am presently working at preschool as a an assistant teacher, at the preschool I have worked with children in the age group of 3 to 5 years, I have also worked with disabled children. I have been working at the preschool since January 2008. My superiors at my present and previous organizations have approved of my work. I am fully committed to constantly improving my performance at work and I ensure that any work that is delegated to me is completed to the satisfaction of the clients and my superiors. I have graduated from Santa Monica College; at college I have done courses such as Child Development Professional, Family and Consumer Studies, Play and Human Potential, Music and literature for children etc. I have found that these courses had enormous practical implication and I have successfully applied my theoretical knowledge in my work. The Family Stress Centre will offer me opportunities to acquire new skills and enable me to practice the theoretical skills that I have acquired as a part of my Child Development Professional course at CSUN. I already possess people skills that are necessary for a position such as this. Additionally I have prior experience of worked with children I have also worked with physically challenged children. Since Family Stress Centre offers counseling services my experience as an assistant teacher will help me to quickly acquire counseling skills.. I am confident of the fact that if selected for the internship I will work with dedication and commitment because I have dedicated my life for the betterment of children.

Overseas Education: Opportunities, Experience and Quality

Vol. 6, No. 2. ISSN: 1473-8376 www. heacademy. ac. uk/hlst/resources/johlste ACADEMIC PAPER Service Quality in Higher Education: The Experience of Overseas Students Maria Pereda (deceased) David Airey (d. [email  protected] ac. uk) and Marion Bennett (m. [email  protected] ac. uk) Faculty of Management and Law, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH  ©Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education Abstract The higher education of students has become increasingly internationalised, with an evergrowing proportion of students originating from overseas.However, research to date suggests that overseas students are often less satisfied with their courses than other students. Consequently, there is a burgeoning need for universities to understand what students value in their university experience. This paper reports on a study that establishes and tests dimensions for measuring service quality in higher education, focusing on full-feepaying postgraduate students from no n-EU countries at one institution in the UK. The institution concerned has a particular reputation in tourism and hospitality and a significant proportion of the respondents were studying these subjects.Adopting Lehtinen and Lehtinen’s 1991 framework, a Q-sort was undertaken followed by factor analysis. The results of the research highlighted four factors of service quality: recognition; quality of instruction and interaction with faculty; sufficiency of resources; and aspects of physical quality. Arguably, the most significant finding here is the importance that these students attach to their institution’s reputation. Keywords: Service quality; Higher education; International students Maria Pereda died in May 2006 shortly after completing her PhD thesis. The degree was awarded posthumously.A native of Venezuela, Maria graduated from Venezuela Central University and held an appointment at Simon Bolivar University in Caracas. She completed her MSc at the University of S urrey in 2000, focusing on tourism and hospitality education. This paper is based on her PhD research. David Airey is Professor of Tourism Management and Pro-Vice-Chancellor at the University of Surrey. He has spent 30 years involved in tourism education in various capacities: with government, with the European Commission and with universities. He is co-editor, with John Tribe, of the recently published International Handbook of Tourism Education.Marion Bennett is Associate Lecturer in Tourism and Marketing at the University of Surrey. She has held lecturer positions since 1991 with the Universities of Strathclyde and Surrey, where her interests have focused on information technology and marketing in relation to tourism distribution, heritage and air transport. Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students Introduction The education of full-fee-paying international students has become of major importance for universities in Western nations, particularly in major English speaking destination countries.Barron (2005: 353) has suggested that â€Å"international education is one of Australia’s largest industries† and that the fees generated by international students are important to the budgetary health of institutions. In the UK, according to HESA (2006) and UKCOSA (2004), about 320,000 or 13 per cent of students in 2004-2005 came from overseas, with about 10 per cent from outside the European Union (EU). This figure more than doubled from about 160,000 in 1994-1995. For some institutions, international students currently represent more than 25 per cent of their student population (UKCOSA, 2006).The main countries of domicile of international students in the UK are China (32,000 or 12 per cent) and Greece (9 per cent), with at least a further 20 countries each providing more than 2,500 students. As far as tourism is concerned, equivalent total figures (UCAS, 2006) suggest that overseas stu dents represent about 16 per cent of acceptances onto programmes, rising from 11 per cent in 1996. Clearly this level of enrolment has represented a major opportunity for institutions, particularly at a time when public funding for higher education has been constrained; but it has also presented challenges.Barron (2005: 355) has pointed to the extent to which most universities have designated international departments responsible for marketing and recruitment, but goes on to highlight the need to ensure that such students are properly supported after arrival, providing evidence to suggest that this does not always happen, leading to frustration and disappointment. A recent report by the Higher Education Policy Institute (Bekhradnia et al. , 2006) confirms this, suggesting that non-EU overseas respondents were considerably less satisfied than others with the value for money received on their course.Against this background, it is clearly important for universities to understand what s tudents value in their university experience, including those from overseas. It has been common practice for many years for higher education institutions to provide opportunities for students to evaluate their learning and teaching experience, typically in the form of end-of-semester or end-of-course evaluations. Many institutions also gain feedback from students about services such as the library or computing.A recent addition to these information sources in the UK has been the National Student Survey (NSS), which focuses on learning and teaching experiences. However, surveys of the overall experience or overall quality have been more rare (Aldridge and Rowley, 1998). This paper reports on a study (Pereda, 2006) that was designed to establish and test dimensions for measuring service quality in higher education, with specific reference to students following postgraduate taught programmes for master degrees, over one year, from countries outside the EU.Many of these were following p rogrammes in tourism and hospitality. Specifically, the study aimed to identify from the literature three dimensions of service quality (physical, interactive and corporative), which were then validated with a Qsort. This provided the basis for a survey of 330 students at one institution in the UK, designed to measure their views of the quality of service received. This provides insights into the items that students value in their educational experience at this institution.It also provides a basis for redefining the dimensions of service quality. Service quality for international students The migration of international students is by no means a new phenomenon. Schachner (1962: 25), for example, refers to the students in medieval times who â€Å"poured in an increasing flood to the centres where they could literally sit at the feet of the great teachers and absorb wisdom†. To some extent, the search for knowledge remains an important driver for international ovement in educati on today, but, in other ways, motives, influences and indeed origin and destination countries have changed radically. During the most recent and biggest expansion of international education, the USA, UK and Australia have become the main destination countries and the countries of South East Asia have joined those of Europe as large providers of students. The search for knowledge has been joined by a range of other Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 56Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students factors in driving this growth. These include: the marketing campaigns of receiver universities; the perceived value of a foreign degree in terms of employment enhancement or ‘snob value’; the absence of sufficient university places at home; government policy in relation to student fees; and more extraneous factors such as opportunities for emigration (Pereda, 2006).As fa r as individual institutions are concerned, Allen and Higgins (1994), from a study of 82 institutions in the UK, report that the most important factors for international students when selecting a university were academic reputation, course content and entry requirements. But perhaps the biggest change, driven in part by the need for Western universities to maintain numbers of international students, particularly where these pay full tuition fees, has been the recognition of such students as an important ‘market’ that needs to be satisfied in an increasingly competitive world.Wright and O’Neill (2002), for example, point to the extent to which an assessment of students’ perspectives has become a crucial requirement if universities are to remain competitive. More than 20 years ago, Glisan (1984) highlighted the special interest in overseas students, while Mortimer (1997) emphasised the need to examine and understand the decision-making process undertaken by these students and for institutions to respond to their needs.To this extent, universities have become increasingly involved in defining service quality and measuring customer satisfaction in ways that are familiar to service marketing specialists (Gronroos, 1984; Kotler, 1985), who themselves were developing measures of service quality from the 1980s. As noted by Patterson et al. (1998) and Conant et al. (1985), the most important customers, namely students and their parents, and the university providers have progressively changed towards a customer service orientation.Against this background, there has been a rapid expansion in the literature about this aspect of service quality. However, the way in which it has typically developed – by identifying the attributes from consultation with the students and then evaluating these (Bourke, 1997; Gatfield et al. , 1999; Joseph, 1998; Thompson and Thompson, 1996) – has meant that there has been a great diversity and lack of c onsistency in methodological strategies and in the variables employed to assess the service quality (Leonard et al. , 2003).Some researchers in education have used SERVQUAL, which is the most popular model to measure service quality, sometimes specifically adapted for the education sector (Wright and O'Neill, 2002; Gatfield, 2000). Orr (2000) identified five groups of organisational determinants of success in the provision of fee-paying graduate courses. Pate (1993) split the literature on student satisfaction into three perspectives: psychological-wellness-type satisfaction (related to personal characteristics); job-type satisfaction (related to future aspirations); and consumertype satisfaction (related to daily experience).However, the general picture is of a profusion and indeed a confusion of measured variables, some replicated across different studies, others unique to a particular study. In an initial attempt to understand the underlying patterns of service quality variables from these previous studies in higher education, a framework proposed by Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1991) was used. The framework was considered to offer a useful preliminary way to structure information relating to education as a service.Lehtinen and Lehtinen separately identified three dimensions of service quality: the physical quality (both products and support); the interactive quality (interaction between consumer and service provider); and the corporative quality (the image). Using these three dimensions, some 24 studies specifically related to quality in higher education were reviewed to establish whether these dimensions could be identified from the variables considered in earlier studies of higher education. For a dimension to exist it had to be included in more than three studies (Ekinci and Riley, 2001).The results and the studies are given in Table 1. From this it is clear that the physical quality dimension (general services, teaching and learning facilities, accommodation ) and the interactive quality dimension (academic instruction, guidance, interaction with staff and students) are well included in the existing studies. The corporative quality dimension (recognition, reputation, value for money) is also present, but is less fully covered and mainly appears in papers concerned with marketing orientation (Bourke, 1995; Wilkinson, 1993). Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 7 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students Study (author year) Mavondo et al. , 2004 Wiers-Jenssen, 2003 Wright and O'Neill, 2002 Elliot and Shin, 2002 Wiers-Jenssen et al. , 2002 Clemes et al. , 2001 Gatfield, 2000 Oldfield and Baron, 2000 Gatfield et al. , 1999 Ford et al. , 1999 Patterson et al. , 1998 Joseph, 1998 Aldridge and Rowley, 1998 Athiyaman, 1997 Bourke, 1997 Tomkovick et al. , 1996 Soutar and McNeil, 1996 Rogers and Smith, 1993 Hampton, 1993 Lapidus and Brow n, 1993 Stewart, 1991 Ortinau et al. 1989 Polcyn, 1986 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Physical quality X Interactive quality X X X X X X X X X X X X X Corporative quality 22 22 8 Table 1: Higher Education Evaluation Matrix Physical quality – general services, teaching and learning facilities, accommodation Interactive quality – academic instruction, guidance, interaction with staff and students Corporative quality – recognition, reputation, value for money This study focused specifically on students from non-EU countries following postgraduate taught programmes.The fact that they are both international and postgraduate identifies them as a particular segment of the student market, and, as noted, it is one that has been showing significant growth and fee-earning potential. In many ways, their needs and responses are similar to those of other students but in significant ways they are also different. For example, as inte rnational students, the 2004 study by UKCOSA (2004) indicated that both postgraduates and undergraduates showed high levels of satisfaction with their academic experience (87 per cent), lthough, at 91 per cent, the undergraduates were rather more positive than their postgraduate counterparts at 85 per cent. This broad similarity is reflected in the other items included in the UKCOSA survey, with a notable exception that, at 85 per cent, undergraduates were more likely than postgraduates (65 per cent) to be offered university housing at the beginning of their stay. Other differences identified in the literature (Pereda, 2006) are that postgraduates are likely already to have been exposed to academic life, are older, with more work experience and experience of living independently.International students have similar issues to their domestic counterparts but additionally they face some specific issues, the most commonly cited being knowledge of English, inadequate financial resources, social adjustment, problems of daily living, loneliness and homesickness (Kennedy, 1995; Wilkinson, 1993; Burns, 1991; Samuelowicz, 1987). These, combined with the fact that they, or their families, are normally paying full fees, may partly explain the extent to which they are more critical of their experience and more demanding (Pereda, 2006). The study by the Higher Education Policy Institute (Bekhradnia et al. 2006) relating to English Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 58 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students universities showed that nearly 30 per cent of such students found their courses represented poor value for money compared with 15 per cent of home and EU students. The fact that this study relates to this particular segment provides information about an important group, but the extent to which the results can be related to all international students or to st udents in general needs to be tempered by these differences.Methodology Having reached a point of identifying from the literature the ingredients of and preliminary structure for service quality in higher education, the research strategy was developed to identify statements and dimensions that would capture the students’ experiences of service quality and to measure these at a particular institution with a large cohort of international students. The students included in the survey were all from non-EU countries taking taught master degree courses, typically over one year, in different aspects of management.Admittedly, this approach contains limitations, being confined to particular students studying a particular group of courses at one institution. The advantage of this approach was partly one of convenience and logistics, but also that it permitted the identification of a sufficiently large and coherent group of students with roughly similar experiences, hence avoiding diffe rences between institutions, subjects, ages and experience. The institution concerned is based in the South of England and achieved university status in the 1960s. It has a strong research reputation as well as strong links with the world of work.Specifically for this study it has a long-standing and strong international reputation for hospitality and tourism education. It regularly ranks as one of the leading centres both for teaching and research in these areas, and is one of only two institutions in the UK accredited by the UN World Tourism Organisation. It has a developing reputation for other management programmes, with recent accreditations by the American body, the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB) and the Association of MBAs (AMBA), placing it among leading business schools.For more than 20 years it has attracted a large number of international students, and currently more than 90 per cent of its postgraduate students in management are from outsid e the UK. A dedicated international office provides specific support for these international students. The fieldwork was organised into two main parts. First, a Q-sort was used to establish the validity of the three dimensions and to establish statements related to the dimensions.A selection of these statements was then used both to explore the response of international students to their experience and to conduct an exploratory factor analysis, which ultimately identified four factors of service quality. Q-technique has its origins in the work of Stephenson (1935; 1953) and provides researchers with a systematic and orderly means for identifying the dimensions of subjective phenomena from the viewpoints and experiences of individuals. In brief, it attempts to convert subjective responses into measurable dimensions, which can then be formally evaluated by statistical applications.To this extent it is a preliminary method. It makes the study of human subjectivity amenable to ‘ob jective analysis’, hence combining the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research (Sexton et al. , 1998). This versatile procedure is well suited to cases where the existence of concepts has not been established (Ekinci and Riley, 2001). The evaluation of students’ experiences comes into this category and was used here as a first step. Stergiou (2004) had earlier, and for similar reasons, followed this approach in relation to students’ views about teaching.The Q-sort was carried out in two phases. In the first phase, a bank of statements was created to represent the dimensions suggested by Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1991). The initial set of statements was generated from previous questionnaires in the area of higher education, including unpublished dissertations (Leonard et al. , 2003), as well as from discussions with researchers in related areas. An initial pilot test was conducted with five subjects in order to check the instructions and any wording problems with the statements that Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 9 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students were generated. For the first Q-sort, a total of 104 statements were used, related to physical quality (34 statements), interactive quality (38 statements) and corporative quality (32 statements). Respondents for the study were confined to students enrolled in a postgraduate programme at the researchers’ university for at least one semester. The experience in the university is a basic requirement to evaluate the service.The Q-sort was completed by a total of 30 students from 28 different countries, including two from the UK, six from other EU countries and 22 from other parts of the world. These students were asked to sort the statements, which had been printed onto separate cards, into the three dimensions and then, for each group of statements, to clas sify them into: ‘most important’ (the kind of service you would expect to have); ‘least important’; and ‘not relevant’. In order to qualify, a statement needed to be allocated to the same heading by at least 60 per cent of the sample (Ekinci and Riley, 2001; Hinkin and Schriesheim, 1989) and a minimum f four qualified statements was required to validate the existence of a dimension. The result of this Q-sort was a set of 85 validated statements distributed as follows: physical quality 38; interactive quality 29; corporative quality 18. For the second Q-sort, in order to have a better balanced representation among the three dimensions, the best 20 statements that obtained a degree of consensus of 70 per cent or more were used for the first two dimensions, physical quality and interactive quality.However, further adjustments were also made both to avoid omitting likely determinants of student satisfaction – for example, library services â €“ and to remove statements that essentially had the same meaning. For corporative quality, which only achieved 18 validated statements, three of which did not reach the cut-off of 70 per cent, five new statements were added. Hence, the second Q-sort took place with 60 statements, 20 related to each dimension.The respondents for this second round were 30 non-British full-fee-paying students enrolled on PhD (12) and master (18) degree programmes in different departments of the university. They were asked to sort the cards in the same way as in the first Q-sort. The output from this round was a set of 59 validated statements. One item was rejected from corporative quality. The second stage of the study involved further exploration of the statements to establish how they impacted on student views of the quality of service provided and how well they confirmed the existence of the three dimensions.For this, a research instrument was implemented with students taking taught postgraduat e master level programmes at the institution. The final response was from 330 students taking a range of programmes in management and related areas. Eighty-four of these were on programmes related to hospitality and tourism, although it should be noted that this underestimates such students because a number of them identified themselves as studying ‘management’, omitting to mention their particular specialism. All were overseas students paying full fees.The research instrument was distributed personally in spring 2005, in most cases at the end of classes, and self-completed in the researcher’s presence. Forty statements in total were used from the second Q-sort to measure student views of the quality of service. Fifteen of these related to physical quality, 11 to interactive quality and 14 to corporative quality. The statements are given in Table 2. Physical quality The gardens and open areas on the campus are kept clean Students’ rooms are provided ith ad equate internet connections The classrooms have up-to-date teaching support equipment The university has modern computers with the latest programmes Student accommodation is safe The university has sufficient residential accommodation The library has a wide range of book and periodicals in my area of studies The rooms in the student residential accommodation are comfortable Mean 5. 22 5. 14 5. 10 5. 06 4. 66 4. 66 4. 57 4. 55 SD 1. 17 1. 90 1. 05 1. 30 1. 31 1. 41 1. 51 1. 28 Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 60Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students Adequate printer facilities are available The campus computers are sufficient for the student population The communal areas in each student residence are adequate for the number of students The university has plenty of sports facilities The sport centre offers modern equipment The university offers modern accommodation at affordable prices The university provides adequate parking areas for students Interactive quality My course is intellectually challenging Staff react politely to students’ queries It is easy to make friends on campus The administrative staff are helpful Lecturers stimulate critical analysis There are clear and reasonable requirements for each module Lecturers can be easily contacted individually It is easy to get involved in campus social organisations Lecturers have adequate time for consultation Feedback from coursework is adequate It is easy to interact with local students Corporative quality The university takes the lead in research A degree from this university improves my employment prospects The university maintains links with international education networks A degree from this university is well recognised internationally The university is well recognised for the academic programmes The university offers a high quality of teaching performance The ranking of my school is high Graduates from this university achieve considerable success in finding excellent employment A degree from this university has an excellent reputation in my home country The university maintains excellent links with local industry The university has contacts ith international employers The university has been extensively recommended by my friends in my home country Lecturers in my home country recommended this university to me There are excellent links between my home country and this university Table 2: Students’ views of the quality of service provided 7= strongly agree; 1= strongly disagree 4. 85 4. 85 4. 70 4. 69 4. 66 4. 57 4. 57 4. 45 4. 32 4. 23 4. 18 3. 92 3. 84 3. 45 1. 04 1. 02 1. 16 1. 14 1. 20 1. 17 1. 32 1. 20 1. 38 1. 33 1. 29 1. 37 1. 48 1. 30 5. 02 4. 71 4. 70 4. 60 4. 56 4. 55 4. 48 4. 35 4. 28 4. 23 3. 62 1. 04 1. 19 1. 23 1. 32 1. 19 1. 10 1. 19 1. 28 1. 22 1. 12 1. 50 4. 43 4. 31 4. 29 4. 20 4. 17 3. 94 3. 70 1. 38 1. 41 1. 45 1. 36 1. 32 1. 33 1. 4 8A seven-point Likert scale was used for this purpose, and respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the statements relating to their experience. The instrument also collected data on satisfaction, value for money and demographics. These are not reported here. The analysis included the preparation of descriptive statistics, cross-tabulations against various independent variables, and exploratory factor analysis with Varimax rotation. An Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 61 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students overall Cronbach alpha coefficient of . 875, results from more than 300 respondents, a Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy of more than . 0 and the Bartlett’s test results all gave support that the set of data was adequate for factor analysis, with a factor loading of . 35. Results and discussion The students’ views on the quality of service provided under the three dimensions are given in Table 2. These, together with the reasons for enrolling in the particular programme presented in Table 3, provide an indication of the elements of service quality that are of importance to these international students. The reputation and content, including the English language provision, of the programme are clearly important to the students in making their decisions about where to study. Reason Degree accepted internationally English language spoken Content of the courseReputation of this university back home Facilities Entry requirement Getting an offer of a place Influence of friends/family Know someone studying there Degree not available at home Scholarship award Sponsor’s decision Level of fees Difficulty of getting into university at home Table 3: Reasons for enrolling No (n=308) 184 152 142 103 91 63 62 54 52 52 42 19 13 11 The most important finding of the research to be reported here was that the factor analysis did not entirely support the structure proposed by Lehtinen and Lehtinen. Indeed, as set out in Table 4, four dimensions are identified, and of these, Factor 1 is by far the most important, accounting for the largest proportion of the variance (34 per cent), with eigenvalues greater than 3. 00 (6. 156).This factor includes a group of statements related to research, rigour and reputation, and is labelled here ‘recognition’. Factors 1 Factor 1: recognition The ranking of my school is high (corporative quality) A degree from this university is well recognised internationally (corporative quality) The university takes the lead in research (corporative quality) A degree from this university has an excellent reputation in my home country (corporative quality) My course is intellectually challenging (interactive quality) Factor 2: quality of instruction and interaction with faculty Lecturers have adequate time for consultation (inter active quality) . 765 . 772 . 702 . 659 . 652 . 609 2 3 4 Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 62Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students Lecturers can be easily contacted individually (interactive quality) There are clear and reasonable requirements for each module (interactive quality) Lecturers stimulate critical analysis (interactive quality) Feedback from coursework is adequate (interactive quality) Factor 3: sufficiency of resources The campus computers are sufficient for the student population (physical quality) Adequate printer facilities are available (physical quality) The communal areas in each student residence are adequate for the number of students (physical quality) The university has sufficient residential accommodation (physical quality) Factor 4: quality of facilities The university has plenty of sport facilities (physical quality) The sports centre has m odern equipment (physical quality) The classrooms have up-to-date teaching support equipment (physical quality) The gardens and open areas on campus are kept clean (physical quality) . 863 . 802 . 526 . 483 . 724 . 689 . 657 . 642 . 758 . 663 . 611 . 454 Eigenvalue 6. 156 1. 527 1. 375 1. 72 Explained variance by factor (%) 34. 199 8. 481 7. 640 7. 069 Table 4: Service quality scale: factor loading structure Extraction method: principle component analysis. Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalisation. Rotation converged in five iterations To some extent this reflects how the university positions itself as a demanding and competitive body. The other three factors did not reach eigenvalues of 3. 00, and the percentage variance together only accounts for 23 per cent of the total. The second factor roughly relates to Lehtinen and Lehtinen’s ‘interactive quality’ and here is labelled ‘quality of instruction and interaction with faculty’.The items he re emphasise the importance of the lecturer in his or her intrinsic role as a teacher, willing to guide, teach and motivate students. The variables included in this factor also provide evidence of the responsibilities of the lecturer towards the students in terms of providing clear instructions, accurate and punctual feedback and private consultation. Factor 3 includes four items from ‘physical quality’, and although they only explain 7. 64 per cent of the common variance, all the items have high loadings, ranging from . 642 to . 724. Interestingly, they all relate to the adequate provision of services by the university and hence are labelled here ‘sufficiency of resources’.The last factor, although composed of four items from ‘physical quality’, does not show a clear pattern – two of the items refer to sport facilities (both of which have high loadings), the modernity of classroom facilities and cleanliness of the campus. This recasting of the dimensions provides an interesting step in translating service quality thinking into the arena of higher education. In particular, it emphasises the point that the provision of services is not only about the actual facilities (classrooms, computers, etc) and the ways in which they are delivered (by the teachers), both of which find correspondence in any service; it also highlights the fact that there is another, in this case overriding, dimension for students in the ways in which they judge their institution.This is the standing or recognition of the university, which in itself is a combination of achievements often over many years in the wide range of activities covered by universities – teaching, research, invention and knowledge creation. In the case of this particular study, this may be partly explained by the fact that the institution concerned has an outstanding and long-established reputation for Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2) , 55 – 67 63 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students tourism and hospitality studies, and a significant proportion of the respondents were taking these programmes. In the same way, ancient universities, some with histories over many centuries, offer ‘reputation’ as a key element in attracting students.This ‘recognition’ dimension, of course, also finds expression in other services and goods, but arguably its explanatory strength for universities in distinguishing between institutions, particularly for overseas students, is more powerful than in other areas. It is difficult to generalise from this to all universities. Given the rapid expansion of the sector in recent years, there has been little time for many institutions to have developed their reputations. This may explain why in earlier studies (Gatfield et al. , 1999; Tomkovick et al. , 1996) which have included ‘reputationà ¢â‚¬â„¢ it has not consistently appeared as the most important factor. Indeed, ‘academic instruction’ has more typically explained most of the variance (Gatfield, 2000; Elliot and Shin, 2002; Patterson et al. , 1998).However, what it does point to potentially is the sheer importance of reputation once it has been achieved and, as a corollary, the imperative to maintain reputation. Against this background, league tables and world rankings take on a crucial role and hence become a vital part of the development and survival strategy for institutions in an increasingly competitive world. As international recruitment and international competition in higher education increases, this is likely to figure increasingly prominently in the strategies of universities. Conclusion Three important issues come out of this work in relation to the things that students value in their university experience.First, in line with previous studies, the evaluation of higher education includes a c omplex and diverse range of variables, from classroom experience to library and computing provision, from social and sporting activities to international recognition. Second, the work in measuring service quality provides a good starting point for understanding the basic structure of the variables that students take into account in evaluating their experience. And third, there is, at least for some universities, including the one where the study took place, a fourth dimension related to reputation; in this case, a reputation in hospitality and tourism may have influenced the results. This then points to a key feature of higher education provision, which is that universities are not a uniform range of institutions.They vary enormously by, for example, age, size, structure, specialism and orientation, and any form of evaluation will be likely to reflect these differences. In this case, it is reputation and recognition that has come through. In other universities and with other student groups there may well be other dimensions in the variables. This study was based on one institution and sought the views of the international, postgraduate, full-fee-paying students who had already taken a decision about where to study, and the configuration of the variables reflects this. Primarily, it has brought the reputation of the institution into prominence; but it has also provided a further basis for understanding the issues that international students value.Given the likely continued growth in international student movements, there are key lessons here for institutions, not least in the importance of developing and maintaining reputation. As already noted, in an environment of globalisation, international competition and league tables, reputation is likely to increase in importance. Of course, given the sample of a particular group of students studying particular subjects at one institution, there are some important limitations in the extent to which it is possible to gen eralise the results. However, notwithstanding this weakness, both the approach and the findings in terms of the key variables and dimensions provide pointers o approaches to understanding the views of students and the ways in which this important group of students view their experience. There are clearly many further avenues for research in this area. A wider range of institutions with different priorities, a wider range of subject areas and coverage of undergraduate and domestic students would all provide further insights to the views of students about their Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education 6(2), 55 – 67 64 Pereda, Airey and Bennett (2007) Service Quality in Overseas Education: The Experience of Overseas Students experiences and about the dimensions that they value. But perhaps most important for tourism and hospitality specialists would be a specific focus on students studying these subjects.While they are a significant cohort among the students included in the survey, and this study can provide pointers, their number was not sufficient to draw final conclusions about their particular characteristics, if any. This work remains to be done. References Aldridge, S. and Rowley, J. (1998) Measuring Customers' Satisfaction in Higher Education. 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